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 Mast Cell Activation Syndrome (MCAS) is a complex condition that has been gaining attention in the medical community for its role in a variety of symptoms and diseases, including skin conditions such as eczema and dermatitis. (1–3) This article aims to shed light on what MCAS is, how it’s diagnosed, its connection to skin conditions and potential management strategies. What is MCAS? MCAS is a condition where mast cells, a type of white blood cell that play a crucial role in the body’s immune response, behave abnormally, triggering immune related symptoms. Mast cells play a pivotal role in the management of inflammatory responses, acting as the defensive guardians against pathogens. These cells are found in tissues throughout the body, especially where the body is exposed to contact with foreign bodies, such as the skin, lungs, and digestive tract. When mast cells detect a foreign substance or an injury they release a variety of different chemical signals including histamine, cytokines, and growth factors, which are all part of the body’s defence systems. This is normal and what keeps us healthy. Normally, mast cells help protect the body from disease and aid in wound healing but in MCAS these cells are overly sensitive and release too many of these chemicals leading to a range of symptoms that can affect every part of the body, including the skin, gastrointestinal, cardiovascular, respiratory and neurological systems. Long COVID is also thought to involve aspects of MCAS. Symptoms and Diagnosis The range of symptoms involved in MCAS are vast and can vary significantly from one individual to another. Reported symptoms include: flushing, itching, urticaria (hives), stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, diarrhoea, low blood pressure, headaches and breathing issues. The severity of symptoms can range from mild to life-threatening. As you can tell these are symptoms that can overlap with many other conditions making diagnosis tricky. Officially there are three sets of criteria needed for MCAS diagnosis:
The MCAS, Dermatitis Connection The skin is one of the organs most commonly affected by MCAS and dermatitis (atopic, contact and urticaria) is the most common skin illness linked to this condition. Dermatitis, characterised by inflammation of the skin, can be exacerbated by the overactive release of histamine and other chemicals from mast cells, leading to redness, itching, and swelling, all symptoms so characteristic of this chronic skin condition. The different types of eczema/dermatitis have multifactorial root causes including genetic, environmental and immune system factors. The link between MCAS and dermatitis is found within the immune system, particularly in how mast cells can over secrete the chemicals that can exacerbate an existing flare or trigger a new one. A combination of MCAS with chronic, relapsing dermatitis can cause misery for sufferers. Histamine, one of the most well-known mediators released by mast cells, is involved in immediate allergic reactions and plays a significant role in vasodilation or increased blood flow, and recruitment of other immune cells to the site of injury or infection. If you are interested in learning more about histamine, I have written a series of 5 articles relating to histamine, which can all be found via my website. Understanding the role of mast cells in immune responses and their contribution to conditions like MCAS and dermatitis underscores how intertwined both the immune system and skin health is. What is important to bear in mind is the need for support that may modulate mast cell activity but also alleviate the dermatitis symptoms. Management strategies for MCAS-Related Dermatitis Managing diagnosed MCAS and dermatitis needs a rounded approach that takes into account both the overactive mast cells and the dermatitis symptoms. Here are some tips that may help:
In summary, MCAS is a multifaceted condition that can significantly impact the physical and mental wellbeing of affected individuals. Having a medical diagnosis that then provides an appropriate treatment plan that alleviates symptoms is important, however, understanding the root cause of the hyper-activation be it food, environmental, lifestyle factors or stress is vital for long-term health. References.
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I’m Jessica Fonteneau, the Eczema and Digestive Health Nutrition Expert. I’ve worked with hundreds of clients to help them change their diets, better manage their flares, and find relief. My vocation is to help those with eczema and digestive issues, because I have suffered with these interlinked conditions since I was 6 months old, and I truly know what it is like to experience these debilitating conditions. Every client I have ever worked with has their own triggers and ideal nutrition. There is no such thing as ‘one-size-fits-all’. Whether you work with me one-to-one or use my guided tools, my objective is to help you uncover what works best for you, so that you take back control and experience relief. My guided programmes are only suitable for adults as children have very specific nutrition requirements. I do, however, work with many child clients as part of my clinic. I also offer two free communities for adults caring for children with eczema and digestive symptoms, feel free to come and join us and get some well-deserved support.
To easily keep up with my articles, masterclasses, ebooks and online programmes and receive exclusive access to early bird offers, sign-up to my newsletter. Interested in what I do and who I am? Go to my website: www.jessicafonteneaunutrition.com
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 Histamine intolerance is a recently identified but increasingly considered condition that, whilst not life-threatening, can trigger a range of uncomfortable and often debilitating symptoms. The disparity and variety of symptoms that can be attributed to this condition are so widespread that it took time for the scientific community to observe the common denominator, and it is often misdiagnosed in general practice. This, the fifth and last article in my ‘histamine’ series, will delve into this condition that is grabbing the attention of the healthcare community, providing you with information that may help you unravel whether histamine intolerance may be a factor in your health. The article covers:
What is histamine intolerance? Histamine intolerance, also known as histaminosis or histamine sensitivity, is an increasingly recognised condition that affects a significant number of people worldwide. (1,2) is usually defined as the inability to adequately breakdown histamine. Histamine is a neurotransmitter, found throughout the body, but specifically in the skin, respiratory tract, and the digestive system. It is involved in numerous processes including stomach acid production, and vasodilation (the widening of the blood vessels), but is more commonly known for its pivotal involvement in the immune response. It is believed that individuals who suffer from histamine intolerance have a deficiency or dysfunction of the DAO (diamine oxidase) or HNMT (histamine-N-methyltransferase, enzymes, which are responsible for breaking down histamine in the body. This slowing of histamine degradation leads to a possible accumulation of histamine, leading to a variety of symptoms, depending on the individual. It is thought that histamine intolerance prevalence is higher in children than in adults (3), but further studies are needed. My clinical experience, working with many infants and young children with digestive and skin symptoms, is that when true IgE allergies have been ruled out, histamine intolerance is often a route to be explored. Lowering an overall histamine load, rather than assuming that multiple food intolerances are at play, can allow children to retain the all-important macro and micronutrient variety, rather than putting them at risk of strict and restrictive elimination diets which oftentimes worsens the situation and puts their health at risk. Histamine intolerance has, in the past, often been misdiagnosed as whole host of other diseases including food allergy and intolerances, urticaria, eosinophilic gastroenteritis amongst others. When clients come to see me with negative allergy/intolerance testing, but who swear blind that such and such a food triggers a reaction, histamine intolerance is something that immediately springs to mind. Which symptoms hint at a possible histamine intolerance? As I’ve already explored in previous articles (see links at the end of this feature), histamine intolerance can manifest in a variety of different symptoms, hence the diagnosis difficulty. Common symptoms include:
What are the possible contributory causes? There are several possible contributory causes to histamine intolerance, but the main theory involves the concept of an overall histamine ‘load’ or the cumulative effect of several factors, including:
Please note that not every individual will be affected by all the above, and this overview should only support the notion of how your overall histamine load could add up. The genetics of histamine intolerance For some experiencing histamine issues, the question of low or slow DAO or HNMT activity may stem from their genetics. DAO inactivates histamine in the gut and HNMT within the nervous system and lungs. Genetic variants on these enzymes or their pathways can lead to histamine intolerance. Nutrigenomics testing, which I offer through Lifecode Gx, can provide information on our own genes which then informs us on the nutrition and lifestyle changes we can make to align with any variants to optimise health and wellbeing. Lifecode Gx offers a specific Histamine Intolerance test. You can find out more, by clicking the link. Nutrigenomic testing is the only form of testing that is available from the youngest age. Whilst how you eat and live your life will have an effect on whether a gene variation may have an impact, your genes themselves never change. My top tips for lowering your histamine load.
If on medication, please speak to your GP/consultant before making any changes to your diet. If you are interested in histamine and its impact on symptoms, this article is the second in a series I am currently publishing covering. The series in total will include:
Sign up for my news to receive the published articles straight to your inbox. Read more by clicking below to see my previously published articles:
I’m Jessica Fonteneau, the Eczema and Digestive Health Nutrition Expert. I’ve worked with hundreds of clients to help them change their diets, better manage their flares, and find relief. My vocation is to help those with eczema and digestive issues, because I have suffered with these interlinked conditions since I was 6 months old, and I truly know what it is like to experience these debilitating conditions. Every client I have ever worked with has their own triggers and ideal nutrition. There is no such thing as ‘one-size-fits-all’. Whether you work with me one-to-one or use my guided tools, my objective is to help you uncover what works best for you, so that you take back control and experience relief. My guided programmes are only suitable for adults as children have very specific nutrition requirements. I do, however, work with many child clients as part of my clinic. I also offer two free communities for adults caring for children with eczema and digestive symptoms, feel free to come and join us and get some well-deserved support.
To easily keep up with my articles, masterclasses, ebooks and online programmes and receive exclusive access to early bird offers, sign-up to my newsletter. Interested in what I do and who I am? Go to my website: www.jessicafonteneaunutrition.com References:
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 It’s a fascinating fact that before puberty, if you are born male, you are more at risk from childhood allergies, but that after puberty those born female are more likely to suffer from conditions relating to immune function including allergies and autoimmune conditions. (1,2)
It’s also reported that many people experience an onset, worsening or sometimes remission from eczema and IBS symptoms at certain times in the menstrual cycle or life stage e.g. pregnancy and menopause. Have you ever considered why? Studies have hinted at the interaction of the neurotransmitter, histamine, and the hormones, oestrogen, and progesterone. Today’s article, the fourth in my ‘histamine’ series, explores this emerging topic and includes:
Histamine, a quick overview Histamine is a compound that acts as both a neurotransmitter and an immune system messenger. It is responsible for a range of roles, including immune response, vasodilation (the widening of the blood vessels), and stomach acid production. Whilst histamine is vital for protecting the bodies against infection and supporting wound healing, too much histamine can lead to various health issues. For more detail on how this might link to digestive health, skin conditions or autoimmunity, please see my previous articles, links below. Oestrogen, progesterone, and the menstrual cycle The menstrual cycle is an intricate ballet of hormonal fluctuations, depending on distinct phases, going from menstruation to the follicular phase, ovulation and finally the luteal phase. During this cycle levels of sex hormones, including oestrogen, progesterone, luteinising hormone, and follicular stimulating hormone, rise and fall with the aim to prepare the body for pregnancy. Oestrogen is a group of sex hormones (estrone, oestradiol and estriol) that plays a key role in the development and functioning of the female reproductive system. Less well considered is the fact that oestrogen also impacts bone health, cardiovascular function, cognitive function, and the modulation of the immune system. Oestrogen levels are at their highest during the follicular phase, between the first day of a period and the next ovulation (days 1-14). Oestrogen is primarily excreted from the body following detoxification via the liver. Some oestrogen is, however, recycled and remains in circulation which may lead to oestrogen levels being proportionately higher at some times. Progesterone, another vital hormone, works in step with oestrogen to regulate the menstrual cycle and prepare the body for a potential pregnancy. It also plays a role in thermoregulation (cooling you down or keeping your warm), skin health, brain function, and vitally has anti-inflammatory actions. Progesterone levels are highest during the Luteal phase of your cycle. This is the phase directly after ovulation which lasts until your next cycle begins. Oestrogen, progesterone, and histamine, how might they interact? Research suggests that histamine levels are influenced by the hormonal fluctuations that happen during the menstrual cycle. Oestrogen has been demonstrated to encourage release of histamine from mast cells. This may explain the increase in symptoms such as allergies, migraines and eczema during the follicular phase, reported by many. (1) Some studies, have indicated that oestrogen may not just trigger mast cells to produce histamine but may also downregulate the production of DAO (diamine oxidase), one of the enzymes that breaks down histamine in the gut. (3,4) Some studies suggest that progesterone may slow mast cells from releasing histamine. (5) Histamine levels linked to the menstrual cycle. A useful, but basic summary, particularly in relation to the topic we are discussing today is the fact that oestrogen can stimulate histamine production and progesterone is anti-inflammatory. If we know that oestrogen levels are highest during the follicular phase and progesterone’s are highest in the luteal phase, then we can start to consider whether a person’s own symptoms can be mapped to their cycle. It is important to note that whilst some do report an increased sensitivity to histamine during certain phases of their cycle, many do not. Histamine and pregnancy Hormone levels are increased during pregnancy and for those sensitive to histamine, an increase in skin or digestive issues may be experienced at that time. Morning sickness can also be related to histamine’s role in stomach acid production. On the other hand, during pregnancy the immune system is naturally heightened, which for some results in remission from eczema or other symptoms for the duration of the pregnancy. Menopause and histamine imbalance The menopause marks the end of the reproductive years and is characterised by a host of hormonal changes including the reduction of oestrogen and the almost total cessation of progesterone production. Remember, oestrogen can induce histamine production whereas progesterone counter acts the effect with its anti-inflammatory role. So, during the menopause when progesterone levels are almost nil, but oestrogen continues to be produced, the scene is set for histamine load to be higher, and many menopause symptoms are directly related to this, including:
My recommendations for keeping histamine in check.
If on medication, please speak to your GP/consultant before making any changes to your diet. If you are interested in histamine and its impact on symptoms, this article is the second in a series I am currently publishing covering. The series in total will include:
Sign up for my news to receive the published articles straight to your inbox. Read more by clicking below to see my previously published articles:
I’m Jessica Fonteneau, the Eczema and Digestive Health Nutrition Expert. I’ve worked with hundreds of clients to help them change their diets, better manage their flares, and find relief. My vocation is to help those with eczema and digestive issues, because I have suffered with these interlinked conditions since I was 6 months old, and I truly know what it is like to experience these debilitating conditions. Every client I have ever worked with has their own triggers and ideal nutrition. There is no such thing as ‘one-size-fits-all’. Whether you work with me one-to-one or use my guided tools, my objective is to help you uncover what works best for you, so that you take back control and experience relief. My guided programmes are only suitable for adults as children have very specific nutrition requirements. I do, however, work with many child clients as part of my clinic. I also offer two free communities for adults caring for children with eczema and digestive symptoms, feel free to come and join us and get some well-deserved support.
To easily keep up with my articles, masterclasses, ebooks and online programmes and receive exclusive access to early bird offers, sign-up to my newsletter. Interested in what I do and who I am? Go to my website: www.jessicafonteneaunutrition.com References:
 When you think of histamine, you don’t always correlate it with autoimmune conditions, even if you know that those illnesses are all about the immune system and inflammation which is driven by histamine.
Today’s article, the third in my ‘histamine’ series, focuses on autoimmune conditions, and the article includes information on:
Histamine’s involvement in autoimmune conditions Autoimmune conditions are a diverse group of illnesses, which all involve a person’s own immune system mistaking its own tissues as a foreign invader, triggering an immune response, inflammation and ultimately tissue damage. There are a whole host of different autoimmune conditions, affecting diverse parts of the body, including Type 1 Diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriasis, Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Multiple Sclerosis, amongst many others. As an aside, many people mistakenly think that eczema/dermatitis is also an autoimmune condition, but whilst the immune response is involved, it doesn’t actively attack the skin. The precise causes of autoimmune diseases are complex, multifactorial, immunological, and often genetic. Recent research has highlighted histamine’s role in the development and exacerbation of autoimmune conditions (1) and whilst it can’t be blamed solely for triggering autoimmunity, it can act as a catalyst, amplifying immune responses and promoting the inflammation which subsequently leads to tissue damage. For those who are histamine intolerant, have disruptions in the genetic pathways for the breakdown and removal of histamine, or who may be experiencing a temporary high histamine load, the accumulation of histamine in the bloodstream can trigger a range of symptoms such as headaches, hives, digestive issues and may also exacerbate autoimmune condition specific symptoms. Research has even pointed to histamine intolerance as being linked to autoimmune conditions onset due to the constant low-grade inflammation triggered by the molecule’s presence. Long-term exposure to histamine may lead to an over-stimulated immune system, which can lead to dysfunction and reactivity. (1–3) Histamine can stimulate the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, signalling molecules that promote inflammation. In some cases cytokine production can become excessive, leading to the chronic inflammation so characteristic of autoimmune conditions. (4,5). This can also lead to a condition called Mast Cell Activation Syndrome, that I will address in a future article. Histamine and the gut/immune axis The gut plays an important role in the immune system and recent research has highlighted histamine’s role in influencing this axis along with modulating dysbiosis and the health of the gut wall (leaky gut). (6) See my previous article for further detail. Which are the autoimmune conditions that are most likely to involve a strong histamine response. Whilst histamine is involved in all autoimmune conditions to one extent or another, there are some conditions that are particularly histamine related, these include:
My top tips for managing histamine in relation to autoimmune conditions.
If on medication, please speak to your GP/consultant before making any changes to your diet. If you are interested in histamine and its impact on symptoms, this article is the second in a series I am currently publishing covering. The series in total will include:
Sign up for my news to receive the published articles straight to your inbox. Read more by clicking below to see my previously published articles:
I’m Jessica Fonteneau, the Eczema and Digestive Health Nutrition Expert. I’ve worked with hundreds of clients to help them change their diets, better manage their flares, and find relief. My vocation is to help those with eczema and digestive issues, because I have suffered with these interlinked conditions since I was 6 months old, and I truly know what it is like to experience these debilitating conditions. Every client I have ever worked with has their own triggers and ideal nutrition. There is no such thing as ‘one-size-fits-all’. Whether you work with me one-to-one or use my guided tools, my objective is to help you uncover what works best for you, so that you take back control and experience relief. My guided programmes are only suitable for adults as children have very specific nutrition requirements. I do, however, work with many child clients as part of my clinic. I also offer two free communities for adults caring for children with eczema and digestive symptoms, feel free to come and join us and get some well-deserved support.
To easily keep up with my articles, masterclasses, ebooks and online programmes and receive exclusive access to early bird offers, sign-up to my newsletter. Interested in what I do and who I am? Go to my website: www.jessicafonteneaunutrition.com References:
 Histamine is often thought of in relation to hay fever and skin reactions, such as atopic eczema, but did you know that histamine is also implicated in digestive health conditions including reflux, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) and Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD)?
Today’s article, the second in the series, focuses on histamine and its link to gut health and includes:
What role does histamine play in digestion? Histamine, a neurotransmitter, and immune system mediator, plays a crucial role in a whole range of processes and is found throughout the body, including the gastrointestinal tract. Histamine is released by mast cells and basophils in response to allergens, pathogens, tissue damage, amongst other stimuli and plays a dual role in the digestive system, at times being pro-inflammatory and at others anti-inflammatory. It has several roles including (1):
Which digestive disorders are linked to histamine?
What are the possible triggers of a histamine reaction in the gut?
In summary, here are my top tips for managing histamine as a trigger for gut disorders:
If on medication, please speak to your GP/consultant before making any changes to your diet. If you are interested in histamine and its impact on symptoms, this article is the second in a series I am currently publishing. The series will include:
Sign up for my news to receive the published articles straight to your inbox. Read more by clicking below to see my previously published articles:
I’m Jessica Fonteneau, the Eczema and Digestive Health Nutrition Expert. I’ve worked with hundreds of clients to help them change their diets, better manage their flares, and find relief. My vocation is to help those with eczema and digestive issues, because I have suffered with these interlinked conditions since I was 6 months old, and I truly know what it is like to experience these debilitating conditions. Every client I have ever worked with has their own triggers and ideal nutrition. There is no such thing as ‘one-size-fits-all’. Whether you work with me one-to-one or use my guided tools, my objective is to help you uncover what works best for you, so that you take back control and experience relief. My guided programmes are only suitable for adults as children have very specific nutrition requirements. I do, however, work with many child clients as part of my clinic. I also offer two free communities for adults and adults caring for children with eczema and digestive symptoms, feel free to come and join us and get some well-deserved support.
To easily keep up with my articles, masterclasses, ebooks and online programmes and receive exclusive access to early bird offers, sign-up to my newsletter. Interested in what I do and who I am? Go to my website: www.jessicafonteneaunutrition.com References: 1. Chen M, Ruan G, Chen L, Ying S, Li G, Xu F, et al. Neurotransmitter and Intestinal Interactions: Focus on the Microbiota-Gut-Brain Axis in Irritable Bowel Syndrome. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2022;13(February):1–12. 2. Rettura F, Bronzini F, Campigotto M, Lambiase C, Pancetti A, Berti G, et al. Refractory Gastroesophageal Reflux Disease: A Management Update. Front Med. 2021;8(November):1–19. 3. Zaterka S, Marion SB, Roveda F, Perrotti MA, Chinzon D. Historical perspective of gastroesophageal reflux disease clinical treatment. Arq Gastroenterol. 2019;56(2):202–8. 4. Melgarejo E, Medina MÁ, Sánchez-Jiménez F, Urdiales JL. Targeting of histamine producing cells by EGCG: a green dart against inflammation? J Physiol Biochem [Internet]. 2010;66(3):265–70. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s13105-010-0033-7 5. Kanikowska A, Janisz S, Mańkowska-Wierzbicka D, Gabryel M, Dobrowolska A, Eder P. Management of Adult Patients with Gastrointestinal Symptoms from Food Hypersensitivity—Narrative Review. Vol. 11, Journal of Clinical Medicine. 2022.  Every so often a new health buzz word emerges. The new “thing” that, once resolved, will, theoretically, solve everything.
From the questions I get within my community forums or from clients, histamine seems to be the current molecule of interest, particularly in relation to skin, gut and autoimmune issues, but does it deserve this notoriety? There is a lot to unpick regarding histamine, so I have divided the topic into 5 separate articles. The first is published below and the next four will follow over the next month, so keep watching this space or sign-up for my emails to receive the articles direct to your inbox:
What is the histamine and eczema/dermatitis link? Today’s article covers:
What is histamine? Histamine is a neurotransmitter, produced by mast cells, found throughout the body, but specifically in the skin, respiratory system, and the gastrointestinal tract, but also by basophils, a type of white blood cell which is involved in an immune reaction. Histamine is mostly known for its involvement in the immune response cascade (one reaction, causing the next and so on). This neurotransmitter is directly responsible for itching, redness and swelling (inflammation) but is also involved in numerous other processes including stomach acid, contraction of smooth muscle (muscles involved with respiration and digestion amongst others), and the dilation of blood vessels. Whilst histamine, the neurotransmitter, is the main driver, there are four different types of histamine receptors (H Receptors) which determine the type or location of a histamine response. (2,3)
Histamine and the immune system, how does it work? When the body encounters an allergen, be it environmental (pollen or dust mites, for example) or food (e.g., gluten, dairy etc.) the immune system responds by producing immunoglobulin E (IgE) antibodies which bind to mast cells and basophils which then trigger the release of histamine. Histamine release makes blood vessels dilate resulting in blood rushing to the area and leading to the common signs of inflammation: redness, itching and swelling. Histamine is also involved in the inflammatory response when tissue (or skin) is damaged or infected, causing the blood vessels dilate, drawing blood flow and delivering white blood cells to the damaged area which then help to fight off possible infection. Histamine and eczema/dermatitis – what is the link? Atopic Eczema alone affects an estimated 20% of children and 10% of adults in the Western world (1), which is an absolutely massive number of people. If you suffer from any type of eczema/dermatitis you already know that it is a chronic inflammatory skin condition that can be dry, itchy, and inflamed, all symptoms linked to a histamine response. Most researchers agree that there is a link between histamine and eczema/dermatitis. Histamine triggers inflammation, causing itchiness, redness, swelling and testing has identified that individuals suffering from an eczema/dermatitis flare, have high levels of histamine. What is less clear is what the specific connection is. In other words, just as no two eczema/dermatitis sufferers appear to have the same triggers, the histamine connection may be different for everyone. In terms of current and recent research, the following three links have been specifically examined:
Research suggests that histamine’s role in eczema/dermatitis may go beyond its inflammatory role. Evidence has been found that it may contribute to the breakdown of the skin barrier, resulting in ‘Leaky Skin’, making skin less able to retain moisture and act as a protection against irritants. This means that potential allergens and irritants cross into the body more easily, triggering an immune response. Exploring the eczema types most linked to histamine. As we already know, not all eczema/dermatitis is alike, which means that not all types will necessarily have a histamine link, but those that are include:
In summary, here are my 7 top tips for managing histamine as a trigger for eczema/dermatitis:
Speak to your medical practitioner, Registered Nutritional Therapist or pharmacist adviser for further guidance. If on medication, please speak to your GP/consultant before making any changes to your diet. Histamine Masterclass - 1pm, Thursday 14th September. I will be holding an online Masterclass on histamine on Thursday 14th September 2023 at 1pm - claim your early bird ticket at £10. Don't worry if you can't attend live, you can send your questions in advance and the Masterclass will be emailed to all attendees post the event. Read more:
Interested in what I do and who I am? Go to my website: www.jessicafonteneaunutrition.com 1. Nutten S. Atopic dermatitis: Global epidemiology and risk factors. Ann Nutr Metab. 2015;66:8–16. 2. Buddenkotte J, Maurer M, Steinhoff M. Histamine and antihistamines in atopic dermatitis. Adv Exp Med Biol. 2010;709:73–80. 3. Patel RH; Mohiuddin SS. Biochemistry , Histamine. 2023;32491722. |
AuthorI’m Jessica Fonteneau, I’m the eczema specialist and I help people Escape from the Eczema trap. Archives
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